Hello! It’s konkaz (@konkazuk).
The book I’m introducing today is “Sapiens” by “Yuval Noah Harari“, an Israeli historian and philosopher.
I’ve listened to the audiobook twice already, but due to the wide range of topics covered, there were many terms I didn’t quite understand. To get a deeper understanding, I decided to read a physical copy this time.
When we think of ‘Homo sapiens,’ we usually imagine the primitive era, but this image needs to be broken down.
The focus on ancient times is just a small part of the earlier sections; what truly matters is what happens afterwards, leading into the present day and continuing to shape our lives.
Unlike traditional history books that list events in a boring, chronological fashion, this amazing book explains the key events in human history that contributed to our development, incorporating views from politics, economics, philosophy, and science, to show how ‘Homo sapiens’ got to where we are now and what may lie ahead.
This book will truly transform the way you see the world once you’ve finished it.
Reading just this one book can help you understand where you stand as a human being. Instead of skimming summaries on book review websites, I highly recommend picking up the physical book and truly engaging with it yourself.
According to Yuval Noah Harari, human development has progressed through three major stages: the “Cognitive Revolution” about 70,000 years ago, the “Agricultural Revolution” around 12,000 years ago, and the “Scientific Revolution” approximately 500 years ago. Let’s explore these in that order.
Cognitive Revolution
Organisms are classified into seven taxonomic ranks, but if we look at just the last three, this is how humans are classified.
Family Hominidae
Genus Homo
Species Sapiens
Within the family (Hominidae), you’ll find great apes, including chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans.
Six million years ago, one mother gave birth to two daughters—one became the ancestor of chimpanzees, and the other became our grandmother.
However, for the past 10,000 years or so, we’ve been the only species in the genus “Homo“, which makes us tend to believe that we’re the only ones that ever existed.
But the original meaning of “human” is “an animal belonging to the genus Homo,” which helps us understand that there were other species besides Homo sapiens.
Around 2.5 million years ago, humans evolved from early ape-like hominins, such as Australopithecus, in East Africa. Over time, they migrated to Europe and Asia, evolving into various species like Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals) and Homo erectus, adapting to different environments.
However…,
it seems highly likely that by about 10,000 years ago, we Homo sapiens, who began migrating around 70,000 years ago, wiped out all of them.
What’s crucial here is the fact that, despite the existence of species like Neanderthals, who were physically superior to Homo sapiens, the real question is how this was possible.
The answer seems to be that only Homo sapiens experienced the “Cognitive Revolution“.
Thanks to the “Cognitive Revolution“, Homo sapiens were able to speak about things that no other animal could, including imagined things (fiction) that they had never seen, touched, or smelled. By many sapiens believing in these imagined concepts at the same time, large groups of people were able to cooperate.
It is said that the maximum number of members that can be gathered to form a group is around 50 for chimpanzees and about 150 for Homo sapiens. Any more than that, and internal conflicts tend to arise.
Unlike other species, Homo sapiens were able to bring together individuals who had never met by inventing things like myths, legends, religions, and corporations. This enabled them to form much larger groups, united by shared beliefs.
Commercial networks are also based on ‘trust’ and would not function without ‘fictional’ concepts like ‘money’ and ‘banks’.
As a result of the ‘Cognitive Revolution,’ ‘culture’ was born, and it is often considered the ‘start of history‘ from which Homo sapiens began to evolve.
Agricultural Revolution
From the chapter on the ‘Agricultural Revolution‘, the book becomes incredibly interesting.
(…and you’ll also find yourself busy recalling the fragments of history you learned in school. 💦)
🔹The busyness just won’t stop!
It’s commonly believed that the Agricultural Revolution was a transformative moment for mankind, creating many thinkers, revealing the mysteries of nature, and ending the tough life of hunting to bring about happiness through settled living…
But the author claims that this ‘Agricultural Revolution‘ was actually the start of humanity’s misery.
The truth is that…
food production surged dramatically, which caused a massive population boom. Consequently, the elite began to manipulate farmers skillfully, pushing them to work longer hours than the nomadic hunter-gatherers of earlier times.
Population growth led to higher consumption, which drove the need for increased production. The result was an ongoing cycle of work, production, and further population expansion.
When we acquire luxuries, they quickly become necessities in our lives, trapping us in a cycle of working harder to attain the next level of luxury.
Tools designed to save time, such as vacuum cleaners, washing machines, dishwashers, smartphones, and email, have instead created more tasks, intensifying our busyness, anxiety, and frustration.
(Enough already, just sto~ppppp!)
🔹Domestication of animals
The Agricultural Revolution and the shift to settlement also marked the beginning of animal domestication.
Sheep, chickens, and cows that resisted or strayed from the herd were culled first, while docile and well-fleshed ones were preserved and bred to boost their population.
Following humans, cows, pigs, and sheep have experienced astonishing population growth across the globe. Yet, their population boom has little to do with their quality of life or happiness.
Chickens can typically live up to 10 years, and cows around 20 years, but when raised for meat, their lifespans are reduced to just a few weeks or months.
The book delves into shocking and painful details about the domestication of pigs and the lives of dairy cows on pages 106–108, revealing aspects most consumers remain unaware of.
🔹Social Hierarchies and Disparities
As societies transitioned to settled agricultural systems, leaders emerged to govern these regions. As their territories grew to empire-sized scales, the complexity of society intensified, necessitating innovative thinking to govern large numbers of people effectively.
Known for the principle “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth”, the Babylonian king who created “the Code of Hammurabi” categorized his society into superiors, commoners, and slaves. The code detailed specific punishments for crimes committed by individuals from each of these groups.
“The Declaration of Independence of the United States” proclaims that “all men are created equal”, yet it does not mention gender equality. Moreover, it was signed by slaveholders, excluding Black people and Native Americans from its definition of equality.
(After slavery was abolished, many Black people were unable to attain sufficient education or financial security, and their chances for career advancement were minimal. Consequently, the percentage of Black individuals in prominent positions remains low, which some white individuals exploit to argue that Black people are inherently less capable, fostering ongoing discrimination.)
The concepts of free people and slaves, whites and Blacks, the rich and the poor all exist as constructs under the framework of fiction.
To convince people to accept it, the idea that social order is a product of imagination is inconvenient, which is why “God” is introduced.
In conclusion, both racial and gender discrimination can be traced back to the Agricultural Revolution.
🔹Three Types of Universal Order
First of all, you might wonder, “What exactly is a ‘universal order’?”
Essentially, it means principles or values that could be universally understood and accepted.
1⃣ One example of a universally accepted fiction created by humans is “money“, which was invented to improve efficiency.
As societies became more complex and the limitations of barter became apparent, “money” began to be widely used in various places.
Money can be exchanged for anything one desires or needs, regardless of religion, gender, race, age, or sexual orientation, making it the most universal and efficient system of mutual trust ever created by humans.
The fact that everyone’s trust in money allows even complete strangers to work together effectively is quite incredible, isn’t it?
2⃣ The second fiction is the political order of “empires“.
The definition of an “empire” is not based on population size, so even a small entity can be called an “empire”.
As empires expanded their influence, the groups they conquered, such as tribes, were assimilated and eventually destroyed, resulting in the blending of cultures.
Thus…
even though the empire or tribe you belonged to was conquered by another empire and its traditions and culture were destroyed, the reality is that those traditions and cultures were also created by past empires, meaning there is no such thing as a truly ‘pure’ culture.
Therefore, at the end of the day…
Our current way of life is built upon the blood spilled by those who came before us.
The world we live in today, in the 21st century, is divided into nearly 200 countries, but none of these countries are completely independent; they are all interconnected and rely on one another.
Global issues such as nuclear weapons and climate change transcend national borders, and no country can solve these problems on its own. Additionally, emerging technologies like bioengineering and artificial intelligence bring new challenges, with the potential to alter our bodies, minds, and even life itself. (Scary!)
Throughout history, many empires have promised to create a universal political order aimed at the benefit of all humanity, but all have failed. Whether future empires will succeed in this remains uncertain.
3⃣ And the third fiction is “religion“.
Religion is often regarded as a source of discrimination, conflict, and discord, but in reality, it has functioned as one of the three major unifying forces of humanity, alongside money and empires.
Historically well-known religions like Islam and Buddhism are universal and missionary, but many ancient religions were regional and exclusive. Their followers worshipped local gods and spirits, showing no interest in converting others.
It was around the first millennium BCE that universal and missionary religions began to emerge, marking one of history’s pivotal revolutions that greatly contributed to unifying humanity—though this came at the heavy cost of bloodshed.
Let’s take a moment here to review some vocabulary related to religion.
🔹monotheism [mɒnəʊθiːɪzəm]
= the belief that there is only one god
🔹polytheism [pɒliθiːɪzəm]
= the belief in many different gods
🔹atheism [eɪθiɪzəm]
= the belief that no god or gods exist
🔹animism [ænɪmɪzəm]
= the belief that all natural things, such as plants, animals, rocks, and thunder, have spirits and can influence human events
🔹missionary [mɪʃənri]
= a person who spreads their religion or belief
A branch of Judaism (an esoteric Jewish sect, which later became the foundation of Christianity) began to evolve, embracing the idea of spreading its faith to the world. This shift in mindset ultimately divided people into “us” and “them“.
Believers in monotheism tend to hold the conviction that they alone have the perfect message from the one true God, leading them to be more fanatical than polytheists and more likely to dismiss other faiths.
According to Yuval Harari, ideologies such as liberalism, communism, capitalism, nationalism, and Nazism, which have emerged relatively recently, resist being classified as “religion.” However, he argues they are fundamentally no different from religions.
If religion is seen as “a belief in transcendent values and rules that shape human behaviour”, it becomes clear that Soviet communism can be considered a “religion”, just like Islam.
Monotheism not only acknowledges the existence of “God” but also readily admits to the presence of “the Devil”. Similarly, the United States represents a fascinating blend of “nationalism”, with its belief in a special mission; “capitalism”, emphasizing prosperity through free-market competition; and “liberal humanism,” which asserts the inviolable rights and freedoms of individuals.
As things get harder to follow, let’s take a moment to list the three variations of modern humanist religions discussed in the book. These are religions that sanctify “Homo sapiens”.
⚫Liberal Humanism
The idea of respecting personal freedom and rights, where individual liberty is paramount, and the role of society and politics is to enhance the freedom and well-being of each person.
⚫Socialist Humanism
A philosophy that emphasizes equality and solidarity in society, criticizing the inequalities of capitalism and striving to create a richer society by pursuing the well-being of the community as a whole.
⚫Evolutionary Humanism
A philosophy that emphasizes human evolution and development, focusing on biological evolution and advocating that scientific progress and evolutionary principles should shape human society and values. While politically neutral, its implementation often requires substantial financial resources, leading to support primarily from right-leaning individuals.
For 60 years after World War II, linking humanism with evolution or advocating the use of biological methods to “upgrade” humanity was considered taboo.
However, such projects have recently gained attention again. While no one speaks of eliminating “inferior races” or “lesser people”, many are exploring ways to create “superhumans” using the growing body of knowledge about human biology.
Furthermore, a significant gap is emerging between the principles of liberal humanism and the latest findings in life sciences, making it impossible to continue ignoring this issue.
Scientific Revolution
The final chapter, which occupies about two-fifths of the book, covers the “Scientific Revolution“.
As it started roughly 500 years ago, it might feel a bit more familiar since it is closer to our present time.
Yuval Noah Harari states that the Scientific Revolution began by questioning what was once considered “common knowledge” or “self-evident” in the world around us.
Previous empires operated under the assumption that they had a complete understanding of the world, expanding their wealth and power through conquest. In contrast, European imperialism placed greater importance on contemporary observations than on historical traditions, embarking on voyages to seek new knowledge.
A pivotal event marking the beginning of the Scientific Revolution was the discovery of the Americas.
To fulfill the ambition of conquering the vast Americas, it was necessary to amass extensive information about its geography, climate, flora and fauna, languages, cultures, and history—an endeavor requiring immense financial resources.
Consequently…,
scientific progress required the support of empires, while the expansion of empires depended on advancements in science.
When “money” entered the picture, it forged a close-knit bond among science, politics, and the economy.
Put simply, over the past 500 years, the alliance of science with imperialism and capitalism has generated the driving force of history.
Empires require massive funding for their growth, and in seeking to break the enduring stagnation of economic development, a fresh idea emerged once again.
The approach is…
a new system built on “trust in what lies ahead“, which is fundamentally the idea of “credit“.
In credit, money is created by using future resources or wealth, which do not yet exist, as collateral for present-day economic activities. This system allows for the use of future income to advance current society. (See Chapter 16)
Yuval Harari argues that there is only one word we must understand in the context of modern history,
… which is “growth“.
People today are almost fixated on ‘growth,’ to the point of being in an OCD-like state. 💦
Then, in the late 18th century, Adam Smith published ‘The Wealth of Nations‘.
In this book, the importance of market economies and free competition is emphasized. However, according to Yuval Harari, what Adam Smith is actually saying is…
‘Greed is good, and by becoming richer, you benefit everyone, not just yourself‘.
What this means is that ‘egoism’ is essentially the same as ‘altruism’, but…
In practice, as profits rise, employers tend to increase their own wealth rather than raising workers’ salaries, which means the ideal doesn’t always come to fruition.
And then came the ‘Industrial Revolution‘ in Britain, which was the ultimate turning point.
The combination of this ‘Industrial Revolution’ and the rise of ‘capitalism’ led to a partnership between ‘science’, ‘industry’, and ‘military technology’, and this was when the world began changing at an extraordinary pace.
The population grew 14 times, production skyrocketed 240 times, and energy consumption increased 115 times. As a result of the continuous focus on ‘growth’, humanity faced the unprecedented situation where supply outstripped demand.
So, the solution was, ‘Let’s all try harder to consume’, However, as we persisted, the consequences of global warming, sea-level rise, and extensive pollution have started to strangle us, suggesting we are heading from the golden age of sapiens to the demise of sapiens.
I believe that Yuval Harari wrote this book with the intention of prompting us to rethink how Homo sapiens came to be where we are today. He asks us to question whether we should keep pushing forward, disrupting the balance of nature, exploiting the vulnerable, and fooling ourselves into believing we are the masters of the planet.
The book is written in a very clear and accessible way, making it easy for anyone to take an interest and read.
So, I’ve summarized it in a very simple way, but for those who haven’t read it yet, I highly recommend picking it up and reading it thoroughly.
This is a must-read book. 👇
Bye now,
konkaz
*You can read this blog post in Japanese from the link below.
👉 『サピエンス』の知識が今も新鮮な理由 – 再読して学んだこと